The general term “farmworker” will be used in this position paper for simplicity. Unless otherwise noted, this term represents a diverse population comprising the following groups of crop workers, some of which can overlap for any given worker.[1]
Seasonal farmworkers. Farmworkers who do not have regular, year-round employment by a single employer. Crop laborers who work 12 months of the year, but for different employers, are considered “seasonal.”
Migrant farmworkers. Generally, migrant farmworkers are people who travel great distances, sometimes overnight, for employment. Some migrant farmworkers are seasonal only for part of the year. During certain times of the harvest season they work at locations where it is impractical for them to return each night to their primary home.
Guest workers. Noncitizens with temporary legal status to work in the United States. For example, the H-2A program allows employers to bring in temporary, foreign-born agricultural workers if no native-born workers are available to do a job.[2]
Undocumented workers. Noncitizens residing in the United States who do not have legal permission to live or work in the country.
Purpose Statement
The sustainability of the US food and agricultural systems, particularly specialty crops such as fruits and vegetables, is highly dependent on the manual labor of farmworkers.[3] However, crop labor is a low-paying, hazardous profession, and the supply of workers to fill these jobs is limited.[4–6] Farmworkers are often socially and geographically hidden, and their unique health and safety needs are frequently overlooked. In particular, migrant, seasonal, immigrant, and undocumented farmworkers across the country lack suitable housing options. This housing shortage has negative effects on the health of workers, the rural communities where they live and work, and the viability of the farming sector that employs and feeds millions of Americans.
The American Public Health Association (APHA) has long acknowledged the connection between housing and health, supported occupational health and safety protections, and urged that the health of immigrants, regardless of documentation status, be improved. The purpose of this position paper is to establish the availability of affordable, accessible, and quality housing options for farmworkers and their families as an APHA priority, reinforcing APHA’s existing position of supporting the health and well-being of this population.
In 1938, the APHA Committee on the Hygiene of Housing issued recommendations defining the fundamental characteristics of healthful housing that continue to guide US government model housing guidelines.[7] APHA updated these principles in 1968 to emphasize the relationship between housing and the World Health Organization’s holistic definition of health as a “state of complete mental, physical, and social well-being.”[8] Subsequent APHA policy statements on the public health role of building codes[9] and publications such as Healthy and Safe Homes have reaffirmed the association’s commitment to advocating for safe housing in the interest of public health.[10]
The issue of farmworker housing is intimately connected to the rights and health status of foreign-born individuals and families living in the United States; over three quarters of seasonal agricultural workers were born in Mexico or Central America and an additional 20% of noncitizen farmworkers self-identify as Asian[3,11] APHA has resolutions on other aspects of immigrant and migrant health but has not yet addressed farmworker housing, although a recent policy statement identifies poor housing conditions as a contributor to chronic stress and thereby health disparities among immigrants more broadly.[12] APHA recognizes that the United States has “an affirmative responsibility to create and implement policies that do not harm the health and human rights of documented and undocumented persons.”[13,14] Previous policy statements have supported the rights of immigrants to health and safety protections in contexts ranging from their workplace,[15] disaster relief,[16] and border crossings.[13,14] Furthermore, in 1978 APHA approved a policy statement asking the appropriate authorities to improve housing inspections and code enforcement at migrant labor camps.[17] Three decades later, migrant and seasonal farmworkers still have significant unmet housing needs that contribute to poor health and, as a result, significant health disparities such as higher rates of infectious disease, harmful exposures, and homelessness.[3,11,18–20] This position paper builds on earlier statements by acknowledging the diverse health and housing needs of the large number of farmworkers living and dwelling in the United States and recommends a comprehensive set of strategies to improve access to quality housing.
Given the close relationship between housing and health, it is impractical to address the health needs of farmworkers without addressing their housing needs. To ensure that an adequate supply of affordable and quality housing is available to farmworkers across the United States, APHA recommends the following:
Problem Statement and Evidence
The lack of affordable and accessible quality housing for farmworkers has resulted in increased public health risks and health disparities for this population. Farmworkers face barriers accessing shelter related to language and educational status, lack of proper documentation, discrimination, low wages, inconsistent employment, the need to travel long distances for work, and a lack of credit. Meanwhile, the shortage of suitable shelter forces many farmworkers into housing situations that significantly harm their health.
Agriculture and Farmworker Characteristics in the United States
No reliable data exist on the total number of farmworkers in the United States, although estimates range from 1.6 million to 5 million migrant and seasonal farmworkers nationwide.[21] The ready supply of labor provided by migrant and immigrant workers to the agricultural sector is critical to helping growers stay financially profitable in a dynamic marketplace. Historical changes in territorial borders and federal policies that created a preference for employment-based immigration have caused the availability of agricultural labor to fluctuate over time.[22] Native-born worker preferences have shifted as the US population ages and becomes more educated, and immigrant workers are increasingly relied upon to fill jobs in the agricultural sector.[6]
States and rural communities with an abundance of specialty crops such as fruits, vegetables, horticulture, and nursery crops face unique labor challenges. One half of all hired and contracted farmworkers are concentrated in 6 states with a high proportion of specialty crops: California, Florida, Texas, Washington, Oregon, and North Carolina.[3] Since specialty growers cannot mechanize to reduce costs, these regions have farmworker housing needs related to the seasonal nature of intensive crop work.[23] Although specific needs may vary from state to state, specialty crop communities generally have small permanent populations but need large numbers of farmworkers for production and harvest.
The sudden influx of farmworkers during harvest season can be overwhelming to rural communities. Growers facing economic pressures are often unable or unwilling to provide on-farm housing, while providers of community-based affordable
housing lack resources to develop additional housing. Migrant farmworkers are of special concern since they typically earn less than salaried farmworkers.[3] Ensuring a stable housing supply for these workers will improve the lives of millions of farmworkers, their health, and the health of their communities. Furthermore, as a co-benefit it will offer a measure of economic stability to growers grappling with an unstable workforce in the face of international market pressures and improve the stability of regional food systems and the agricultural economy.
Farmworker Housing in the United States
Farmworker housing typically consists of 3 options: on-farm housing, private rentals, and community-based housing. The housing demand exceeds supply for each of these options. The US General Accounting Office reported in 1992 that farmworker housing options in California, Oregon, and Washington (including private camps, employer-provided housing, and California’s state-run camps) had the capacity to house less than 30% of these states’ farmworkers, even excluding the dependants who migrate with workers.[24] This forces many workers to set up makeshift living conditions; the California Agricultural Worker Health Survey found workers living in bare garages, vehicles, and animal stalls.[25] The seasonal nature of farm work compounds the lack of housing. Many farmworkers migrate from town to town following growing and harvest seasons, and the need for housing in any given location fluctuates greatly.[24]
Historically, many growers provided on-farm housing to farmworkers. However, trends spanning from the 1970s through the early 1990s show that agricultural employers are discontinuing the provision of housing for their hired farmworkers.[24] Agricultural employers are not legally required to provide housing for their workers (excluding those hired through the H-2A system) and face various economic disincentives to providing housing.[24] In 2010, the Oregon Housing and Community Services Department estimated that only 13% of Oregon’s nearly 10|000 farmworkers were able to reside in registered on-farm work camps.[26]
As on-farm housing options become less available, farmworkers increasingly seek off-farm housing. Finding housing in small rural communities can be challenging given the limited availability of large apartment complexes, trailer parks, or other rental options, and these challenges are exacerbated during peak season.[27] The need for off-farm housing has further increased as more migrant farmworkers are settling in one primary location and shuttling to nearby farms for work.[28]
Farmworkers also look for seasonal housing within community-based housing projects constructed for farmworkers. Such housing projects are often built by community-based organizations (CBOs) with varying levels of support from government funding streams.[29] Although considered one of the more innovative solutions for farmworker housing, community-based housing projects are limited by construction and operating costs.[23,29] Other constraints include lack of federal funds, local government resistance to losing tax revenue, difficulties in finding land, zoning laws prohibiting multifamily projects, opposition of communities to farm labor housing, limited utilities infrastructure, and lack of nonprofit capacity.[29]
As farmworker housing needs vary among different states, national policy recommendations relating to farmworker housing and health must be formulated carefully to make sure they address housing issues in each region.
Farmworker Housing and Health Status
Migrant and seasonal farmworkers experience poor health outcomes, partly through living in substandard housing and makeshift conditions—such as garages, lean-tos, and camps on national forest land—where workers are vulnerable to health threats that no longer affect most US residents.[25] Housing is intimately related to health. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified a series of basic principles to guide an understanding of the connection between human health and housing.[30] According to WHO, adequate housing must do the following:
Housing available to or provided for farmworkers does not always meet these criteria, and homelessness, along with substandard and overcrowded housing conditions, create serious health and safety hazards.[23] Evaluating how and why farmworker housing in the United States falls short of these criteria lays the foundation for APHA policy recommendations.US Farmworker Housing Does Not Protect Against Communicable Disease.
Opposing Arguments
Opponents of policies that would increase the availability of farmworker housing commonly argue either that there is no shortage of farmworker housing or that funding and capacity to provide housing and oversight are unrealistic.
On the local level, anecdotal reports suggest that some states experience a housing surplus with extended vacancies in subsidized farmworker units, and constructing additional units would be unwarranted. Restrictions on personal conduct in housing programs and the desire to maximize income may also influence farmworkers’ decisions to live in cars, with friends, or in tent camps. Opponents may also question the capacity of local and county governments to further enforce housing codes or raise health standards. On the federal level, funding is always in short supply, resulting in unfunded policies such as the National Housing Trust Fund. Furthermore, opponents of funding for farmworker housing may contest whether federal funds should support undocumented workers.
The importance of safe and accessible housing for farmworkers outweighs these concerns, however, both as a matter of human decency and because of the importance of economic protection for the agricultural sector. While the availability of farmworker housing may vary from state to state, both the availability and affordability of housing remain an obstacle in many regions. Some communities may oppose the construction of housing for people they believe will leave after the harvest season. Indeed, the turnover in crop labor is high, with approximately a quarter of laborers replaced within 2 years.[11] However, most farmworkers self-identify as “settled” and indicate the desire to live in one place; they report difficulty acquiring more permanent housing because of their low income and the seasonal nature of agriculture.[3] Investing in housing would give farmworkers and families better access to community social and medical services while also helping growers meet their time-critical harvest needs.[40]
The US agricultural economy depends on farmworker labor, and the costs of not addressing farmworker needs could be enormous. While some argue there is no labor shortage and that an abundance of US workers are willing to perform crop labor, the supply of agricultural labor is actually dependent on large numbers of undocumented workers, and specialty crop growers are especially sensitive to changes in labor supply.[3] The availability of better short-term and long-term housing options would help growers attract a consistent workforce to meet their peak labor demands season after season.[40] Spending on housing now prevents future spending on acute medical costs, absenteeism, lost worker productivity, and other social costs stemming from poor housing or lack of housing. Prioritizing farmworker housing would contribute to the stability of the US agricultural system—a critical part of the national economy, individual livelihoods, and a sustainable food system. The United States already expends significant resources on commodity crops such as wheat, soy, and corn, while specialty crops receive fewer allocations under the US Farm Bill. Redistributing these funds could provide resources for improving farmworker housing.
Finally, some may oppose federal subsidies for undocumented workers. Human rights and justice-based arguments for comprehensive immigration reform have been addressed by other APHA policies; these include the necessity of ending discrimination and protecting residents who contribute to and enhance American communities.[12] While current legal precedence allows housing discrimination based on immigration status at the federal level, modifications to immigration policy could increase farmworkers’ eligibility for safe shelter and stable employment. Moreover, undocumented farmworkers’ access to housing and employment is economically crucial for the agricultural sector, as 50% to 70% of the entire US agricultural workforce may be undocumented.[41,42] Removing all undocumented immigrants from the United States would result in $550 billion lost in annual spending, $245 billion in lost output, and further hundreds of billions in lost tax revenue, yet these contributions by undocumented immigrants are largely unacknowledged in the national dialogue around immigration reform.[43] Without the undocumented workers on which agriculture relies, the sector stands to lose up to 45% of gross product, a higher percentage than any other industry. Clearly, broad immigration policy changes that would improve farmworker housing and health will also have positive impacts on the US economy.
To Improve Farmworker Housing and Health, APHA recommends the following:
Position 1: Increase Availability of Affordable and Accessible Farmworker Housing That Meets Health and Safety Standards.
Federal funding for farmworker-specific housing is inadequate, and growers face disincentives to provide on-farm housing. The US Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Section 514/516 loan and grant program, the only federal program that specifically targets the housing needs of farmworkers, is chronically underfunded and cannot keep up with the increasing need for farmworker housing. Between 2000 and 2008, this program financed only 268 to 818 new units each year, and funding for the entire federal program dropped from $37.7 million in 2008 to $29.1 million in 2009.[44] The shortage of federal funding also affects the availability of CBO housing options.
Farmers face economic and administrative disincentives to provide on-farm housing. Approximately half of smaller US farms operate at a loss and depend on off-farm income for support.[45] Small margins provide an incentive to decrease production costs such as labor.[41,42] While specialty crop growers depend far more on labor than large commodity farms, commodity crops receive more subsidies under the US Farm Bill. The lack of federal funds and disincentives to on-farm housing contribute to farmworker housing shortages.
Strategy 1: Federal Funding Should Be Increased for Existing Low-Income and Rural Housing Development Programs.
USDA should substantially increase the availability of farmworker housing by channeling more resources toward the 514/516 loan and grant program and providing oversight on the status of their projects.[21,46] The Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), the National Housing Trust, and USDA’s Rural Development, Housing, and Community Facilities Program all support infrastructure development to improve farmworker housing opportunities.[47–49] Increasing the HUD HOME Investment Partnership Program and Community Development Block Grants could be used for low-income housing projects that are designed to serve vulnerable populations like farmworkers.[47,50] The National Housing Trust Fund, enacted by Congress in 2008 but still empty, should also be funded to increase housing for low-income families.[48]
Increasing allocations for nonprofit housing organizations that serve farmworkers could also enable communities to meet their housing needs.[21] National programs could model funding for farmworker housing after Community Development Block Grants in Texas targeting colonias, unincorporated subdivisions with little or no infrastructure that developers have sold to low-income individuals.[51] The federal government currently requires states with colonias to set aside up to 10% of their state Community Development Block Grants for colonia development.[52] Creating similar national set-asides in other federal programs could open up opportunities for nonprofits and CBOs to expand their programs.
Strategy 2: USDA Should Continue and Expand Year-Round Subsidy Programs at Seasonal Housing Buildings.
Community-based seasonal housing facilities, considered one of the more innovative approaches to meeting farmworker housing needs,[23,29] struggle to remain open since they do not receive rent or rent subsidies when they are empty during the off season. USDA should immediately enact regulations for converting standard rental assistance to a year-round operating assistance program for seasonal-occupancy housing, as provided by Congress in the Affordable Housing Act of 1998. HUD should allow similar flexibility in the Section 8 Program. This would make it easier for housing programs to convert from standard assistance to year-round subsides, enabling nonprofits and other CBOs to sponsor seasonal housing for farmworkers.[21]
Strategy 3: States and the Federal Government Should Encourage the Building of Farmworker Housing Through Tax Incentives and Credits.
By offering either tax credits or tax deductions, state and federal governments can encourage developers and other builders to construct farmworker housing. The existing federal Low Income Housing Tax Credit can be applied to farmworker housing.[53] Some states have already prioritized the development of farmworker housing through tax credit allocation.[54] Currently, each state can establish its own priorities, but states could be federally mandated to prioritize farmworker housing. Income tax breaks, as in Oregon, could offer another incentive for building farmworker housing. Oregon has successfully facilitated the construction and repair of farmworker housing by offering tax credits for up to 50% of eligible costs.[55]
Strategy 4: The Federal Government Should Support Growers Who Want to Improve On-Farm Housing for Farmworkers.
Agricultural employers who require farmworker labor are decreasing or eliminating their provision of housing to their workers, often because of financial strains.[24] The US Farm Bill disproportionally provides subsidies to commodity crops over specialty crops. Considering the high burden of labor costs for specialty crop farmers, funding from Farm Bill subsidies should be shifted toward specialty crop farmers. A shift in Farm Bill funding would open previously unavailable funding sources for farm owners to improve farmworker housing, help ensure the financial security of small-scale growers, and increase the availability of local produce as prioritized by the first lady’s “Let’s Move!” initiative. These funds could be invested in programs like the Washington State Farmworker On-Farm Housing Loan Program, which provides dollar-for-dollar loans for growers to build and repair seasonal worker housing and related infrastructure.[56] Offering a similar program at the federal level may not decrease the challenge of meeting up-to-standard housing codes, but it can offer financial assistance to growers who want to improve their on-farm facilities. Finally, the Farm Bill should include housing quality as a component of occupational health, to further incentivize the provision of available housing options for farmworkers.
Position 2: Eliminate Discriminatory Barriers to Housing.
Today, immigration reform is primarily centered on undocumented workers, as opposed to employers and others who benefit from their presence in the United States. Historically, growers and the agricultural economy have benefited more than farmworkers from farm labor policies. The H-2A Program, the guest worker program for agricultural workers, is problematic for both growers and laborers. Although the H-2A Program represents a small percentage of hired farmworkers, abuses persist, and laborers who depend on their employer for housing are particularly vulnerable.
However, the majority of foreign-born farmworkers are not registered guest workers, and they too suffer from a fractured immigration system and resulting barriers and discrimination. Although the Fair Housing Act prohibits discrimination on the basis of national origin, both “alienage” (whether a person is a citizen of the United States) and legal status remain permissible bases for denying housing.[57] In addition to the terms in the Fair Housing Act, 42 states have passed ordinances preventing undocumented immigrants from obtaining housing. Since it is challenging for landlords to verify every potential tenant’s immigration status, they may discriminate on the basis of the individual’s accent, surname, appearance, or other ethnic characteristics.[57]
Language barriers and limited access to social service programs also limit farmworkers’ ability to find housing. While 84% of farmworkers are native Spanish speakers and 12% are native English speakers, others speak North and Central American indigenous dialects and Asian and Pacific Island languages.[4,58] The diminished likelihood of existing interpreter or advocacy services for these smaller populations further prevents them from accessing systems providing social services, rendering them particularly vulnerable to living in substandard conditions or even homelessness. Furthermore, almost half of farmworkers cannot speak or read English at all and have limited educational attainment.[4,19] These language and education barriers make it difficult to complete housing applications or understand eligibility requirements for community services. Limited access to services is exacerbated since health and service agencies often lack bilingual or bicultural staff members and may not have access to trained and certified translators.
Strategy 1: The Federal Government Must Prioritize Comprehensive Immigration Reform That Includes Naturalization Opportunities.
To improve farmworker housing conditions, APHA encourages broad immigration reform that increases naturalization opportunities for undocumented workers and their families. As previous APHA policy statements have argued, “Above all, US immigration policy should n
